Jordan: The Daoist Canon

Throughout history the "Daoist Canon," or Dàozàng 道藏 "Vault of the Way," has suffered from:

In the XXth century the last two issues were addressed, and Chinese and western scholars have rescued a fairly extensive canon, published it in multiple copies, and indexed it.

Although there are several distinct themes, and some tend to be concentrated in certain sections, most themes are found in most sections, and the traditional organization of this vast library is both a blessing (because it represents a kind of standard) and a (somewhat greater) curse (because it inhibits understanding).

There have doubtless been hundreds or thousands of different attempts to make order from the chaos. Today we know of at least seven, of which the first is perhaps the most influential, even though it is lost:

Schools of Daoism & the Organization of the Daoist Canon

All editions of the Daoist canon include a wide and miscellaneous range of materials, a mix of philosophy (often with speculations about the perfect political system), instructions for preparing an elixir of immortality by manipulating various chemicals (referred to as "outer alchemy" or wàidān 外丹), guides to meditation (referred to as "inner alchemy" or nèidān 内丹), liturgies, charms, and even reprints of the writings of famous non-Daoists. To make matters even more complex, many of the individual works included range over more than one of these topics.

In addition, several "schools" of Daoist practitioners are represented by the writings collected in the canon. Each of these felt entitled to use any works used by the others, but each had certain works that were particularly associated with it. The various comprehensive canons all seem to founder on the need to place thematically similar materials together, but also to block materials used by the same school together.

Major Groups of Canonical Texts:

Here is a list of the major divisions of the Daoist Canon as they were preserved in several of the editions over the centuries.

Minor Groups of Canonical Texts:

Best Known Daoist Texts

The following texts are probably the most read of the material that is found in the Daoist Canon. In all cases they also circulate quite separately, and their inclusion in one or another of the canonical collections is probably mostly because of their popularity, not the cause of it.

Dàodé Jīng 道德经 (道德經) "The Scripture of the Way and its Efficacy": The most famous Daoist text, probably dating from some time in the Warring States period (475-221 BC), although some scholars place it earlier, usually in the Spring & Autumn period (770-476) of the Eastern Zhōu 周 dynasty (770-256).; The work appears to contain proverbs and other brief sayings from many much earlier sources, and it is traditionally attributed to "the old sage(s)" or lǎo zǐ 老子, which was probably the earliest title of the book itself. Unfortunately for clarity, the term "old sage(s)" was soon (mis)understood as the title of a single person (which is why it is now spelled Lǎozǐ). Lǎozǐ is in turn, through a process of "folk euhemerism" (definition), considered to have the proper name of LǏ Ěr 李耳, to be a native of the ancient state of Chǔ 楚 (near modern HB and HN) during the Eastern Zhōu, to have met Confucius (who did not impress him), and to be the miracle-working founder of Daoism. An alternative name for him was Lǎo Dān 老聃.; In the XXth century earlier texts were found that included some additional material and that also suggest a different ordering of the chapters and the probable title Dédào Jīng 德道经 (德道經). (The definitive translation of the new text is by Robert Henricks.); The Dàodé Jīng text is frustratingly ambiguous, and this has led to its Rorschach-like interest both for Chinese (who have produced thousands of commentaries on it) and for Western readers, who, even if they do not know much Chinese, are keen to produce idiosyncratic and imaginative translations, sometimes with little to justify them. However even most skilled translators of Classical Chinese produce sometimes widely differing interpretations of this text. Click here for some examples.; The Dàodé Jīng is best known in the Anglophone world under the older spellings "Tao-tê Ching" and "Tao-te-ching," and the name of the putative author was formerly often spelled "Lao Tzu," "Lao-Tz'u," "Lao Tse," "Lao Ts'ê," or various other ways.; On-line Translation: James Legge http://www.sacred-texts.com/tao/taote.htm
Bàopú Zǐ 抱朴子 "The Sage Who Embraces Simplicity": A work by Gě Hóng 葛洪 (ca A.D. 268-334), one of the most important Neo-Daoist writers.
Cāntōng Qì 参通契 (參通契) "The Triplex Unity": A work by Wèi Bóyáng 魏伯阳 (魏伯陽) of late Hàn times, whose interest was in finding the elixir of immortality, using insights gained from the trigrams of the Yì Jīng 易经 (易經).
Fēngshén Yǎnyì 封神演义 (封神演義) "Canonization of the Gods": A Míng dynasty novel recounting how the gods came to have their places in the pantheon.; An enormously popular work, this novel is at once a summation of popular stories and a stimulus to their representation in other media, such as traveling theatricals. Although not included in the Daoist Canon, to my knowledge, this work is arguably the single most important influence on popular understanding of Daoism as a religious system. (Click here for a 40-page summary of this entertaining work. Click here for a listing of other influential late-dynastic novels.)

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Hán Fēi Zǐ 韩非子 (韓非子) "Master Hán Fēi": A philosopher (and his book) dating to about the IIIrd century BC, concerned with government, but influenced by Daoism.; Despite Daoist influences, this work is especially associated with Legalism, a school of statesmanship advocating universal application of unbending law. He served in more than one small state, including Qín 秦, under the monarch who was to become the first emperor of a unified China. A rival named Yáo Jià 姚贾 (姚賈) is said to have become envious of him and to have arranged his arrest. He committed suicide in prison in about 230 BC.
Huáinán Zǐ 淮南子 "Masters of Huáinán": A work of the early Hàn dynasty (206 BC - AD 24).; Liú Ān 刘安 (劉安), grandson of the founding Hàn emperor, was the king of a domain called Huáinán, where he was the patron of scholars and artists, including, tradition tells us, a group of eight Daoist miracle-workers, whose discussions constitute the "Masters of Huáinán" text, which includes a mix of observations on government and on nature, but which explicitly supernaturalizes Daoist ideas. It came to be a canonical text of importance in religious Daoism. After Liú Ān's death, the political correctness of Confucian orthodoxy came to prevail in Huáinán, memories of the Masters of Huáinán were lost to history, and their text became politically insignificant.; In later times the name came to be thought of as singular, and Huáinán zǐ, misunderstood to mean "the sage named Huáinán," was credited with the invention of bean curd and regarded as the patron god of bean curd sellers.; For a brief sample extract on this web site, click here.
Huáng Dì Nèi Jīng 黄帝内经 (黃帝内經) "The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal [Medicine]": A major meditational guide.
Huángtíng Nèijīing Yù Jīng. 黄庭内经玉经 (黃庭内經玉經) "Yellow Court Jade Classic of Internal [Images]": A text associated with Shàngqīng 上清 Daoism.
Lǎo Zǐ 老子: See Dàodé Jīng, above.
Liè Zǐ 列子 "Master Liè": A philosopher (and his book) dating from the Warring States period (period 04e).; The philosopher is named Liè Yùkòu 列御寇 (or Liè Yǔkòu 列圄寇). Although the book is well known and widely studied, scholars suspect (as usual) that it is the product of many different authors. The evidence is that many passages are quotations from other works (often lost). Liè Zǐ, at least as seen through this text, is an advocate of "naturalness" (zìrán 自然), which means going with the flow with little conscious striving. The book includes a mass of anecdotes, like much of the Zhuāng Zǐ 庄子 (莊子) text.; One brief anecdote from the Liè Zǐ collection is available on this web site. (Link)

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Shén-Xiān Zhuàn 神仙传 (神仙傳) "Tales of Gods and Immortals": A collection of traditional tales of the pantheon, including many tales of perilous adventures and magical feats.
Tàipíng Jīng 太平经 (太平經) "Scripture of the Great Balance": This work includes the earliest texts on formulas for making the elixir of immortality, an activity referred to as making the wàidān 外丹 or "External Alchemy." However it is largely a discussion of what a perfect kingdom might be like, complete with charms designed to help keep away disasters.
Tàishàng Gǎnyīng Piàn 太上感应篇 (太上感應篇) "Treatise on Actions and their Retributions": A popular morality tract, putatively (but not really) authored by Lǎo zǐ.; In the last few centuries this work has been a great favorite among people who would print it and distribute copies gratis in temples and other public places in order to elevate the level of public morality. For a translation on this web site, click here.
Wén Zǐ 文子 "The Literary Masters": A compilation of Daoist teachings probably made about 100 BC.; Most of the text claims to be sayings of Lǎo zǐ (much as later texts often do), and includes passages, sometimes with commentary, from the Dàodé Jīng, Zhuāng Zǐ, and the Huáinán Zǐ, although it lacks most of the stories that make the latter two texts attractive reading.
Zhuāng Zǐ 庄子 (莊子) "Master Zhuāng": A collection of anecdotes and stories and some philosophical commentary.; Master Zhuāng was an historical person, living in the Warring States period (475-221 BC). The text is usually regarded as the most important Daoist text after the Dàodé Jīng, and it is appreciated for the much greater intelligibility of the material it contains, and the thought-provoking but sometimes lighthearted anecdotes are among the most widely read texts in Classical Chinese. In Chinese scholarly circles, Lǎozǐ and Zhuāng zǐ, taken together, are referred to as simply Lǎo-Zhuāng.; The word zhuāng 庄 (莊) is both a common surname and a word that means village, by the way, so, although most Chinese understand "Zhuāng zǐ" to mean "a philosopher named Zhuāng," it is possible that the name actually should be understood as "a village sage" or "village sages," just as Lǎo zǐ is "an old philosopher."; Some brief anecdotes from the Zhuāngzǐ collection are available on this web site. (Link)

The Daoist Canon

Page Outline:

History of the Daoist Canon

Schools of Daoism & the Organization of the Daoist Canon

Major Groups of Canonical Texts:

Minor Groups of Canonical Texts:

Best Known Daoist Texts